Unit 7: Global Conflict After 1900

7.1 - Shifting Power

• Revolution in Russia:
  • Nicholas II faced intense opposition, leading to his assassination in 1918.
  • Rebellions erupted against authoritarian governments in Russia, China, and Mexico.
  • Established empires collapsed under internal and external pressures, shaping a new global order by the end of the century.
• Key Events Leading to Revolution in Russia:
  • Bloody Sunday (1905): Troops fired on peaceful protesters, sparking mass strikes and unrest.
  • Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905): Russia's defeat marked the first victory of an East Asian state against a European power.
  • World War I (1914): Exposed Russia's military weaknesses and exacerbated civilian hardships.
• Upheaval in China:
  • Ethnic tension, famine, and low government revenues weakened Qing Dynasty support.
  • European industrialization threatened China's position in the global market.
  • Sun Yat-sen's revolution overthrew the Qing Dynasty, leading to the establishment of the Chinese Republic.
• Self-Determination in the Ottoman Collapse:
  • The Ottoman Empire faced economic decline and resented foreign influence.
  • The Young Turks advocated for reforms, leading to alliances and later the Republic of Turkey.
  • Mustafa Kemal Atatürk implemented secular reforms to modernize Turkey.
• Power Shifts in Mexico:
  • Porfirio Diaz's dictatorship led to economic progress but discontent due to foreign control and land inequality.
  • Francisco Madero's opposition sparked the Mexican Revolution, leading to political instability and violence.
  • The adoption of a new constitution in 1917 and the formation of the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) in 1929 provided stability and guided Mexican politics until the end of the century.

7.2 - Causes of World War 1

• Causes of World War I:
  • Social and political developments, including shifting powers, contributed to escalating tensions.
  • European nations competed for resources in Africa and Asia, leading to mutual alliances and arms races.
  • Rising nationalism sparked conflicts, as seen in the Balkans with the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand.
• Immediate Causes:
  • The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by Serbian nationalists triggered Austria-Hungary's declaration of war on Serbia.
  • Alliances between European powers led to a chain reaction of declarations of war, escalating the conflict into a world war.
• Long-Term Causes (MAIN):
  • Militarism: Aggressive military preparedness and competition for dominance.
  • Alliances: Secret agreements between nations to protect each other, leading to entanglements.
  • Imperialism: Rivalry for global domination through overseas colonies.
  • Nationalism: Pride in national identity and movements seeking self-determination.
• Consequences:
  • Downfalls of monarchies and redrawn maps of Europe and the Middle East.
  • Rise of new technologies and disruption of economies, leading to social consequences.
  • A shift of power from Europe to the United States.
  • Seeds planted for communism, fascism, colonial revolts, and genocide.
  • Terms of the peace treaty, especially the Treaty of Versailles, fueled resentment in Germany and contributed to the rise of authoritarian regimes, setting the stage for World War II.

7.3 - Conducting World War 1

• Recruitment and Conscription:
  • Britain initially relied on voluntary enlistment but later implemented conscription.
  • "Pals Battalions" consisted of men who knew each other.
  • By the war's end, a significant portion of British men served in the military.
• Changes in Warfare:
  • Initial perceptions of war as glorious changed as the reality of modern warfare set in.
  • Trench warfare became prevalent, characterized by harsh conditions and disease.
  • The introduction of new weapons like poison gas, machine guns, submarines, airplanes, and tanks revolutionized warfare.
• Entry of the United States:
  • Economic ties, democratic ideals, and resentment towards German actions led to U.S. entry.
  • The Zimmermann Telegram, offering Mexico territory in exchange for an alliance, was a crucial factor.
• Total War:
  • Nations committed all resources to the war effort, involving civilians in production and rationing.
  • Propaganda was extensively used to influence public opinion and recruit soldiers.
• Global Conflict:
  • World War I was fought on multiple continents, involving colonial territories.
  • Imperialism extended the scope of the war, with major battles in Africa and the Middle East.
• Involvement of Women:
  • Women's roles expanded, replacing men in various sectors and serving as nurses and support staff.
  • Some countries allowed women to serve in combat roles, like Russia's Women's Battalion of Death.
• Paris Peace Conference:
  • The Big Four (USA, UK, France, Italy) had differing visions for a peace settlement.
  • Wilson's Fourteen Points aimed for a fair peace, including creating the League of Nations.
  • The Treaty of Versailles imposed harsh penalties on Germany, leading to resentment and contributing to future conflicts.

7.4 - Economy in the Interwar Period

• Government Responses to Economic Crises After 1900:
  • The Great Depression:
    • World War I's aftermath led to economic turmoil and the Great Depression of the 1930s.
    • Governments globally faced increased pressure to intervene in economies.
  • Keynesian Economics:
    • John Maynard Keynes advocated for government intervention to stimulate economic growth.
    • His ideas influenced policies like deficit spending to combat depression.
  • New Deal in the United States:
    • Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal aimed at relief, recovery, and reform during the Great Depression.
    • It included measures like government spending and social programs to alleviate economic hardships.
  • Impact on Trade:
    • The global downturn led to increased unemployment and a decline in international trade.
    • Nations imposed tariffs to protect domestic jobs, exacerbating the economic downturn.
• Political Revolutions and Responses:
  • Russia:
    • Lenin's New Economic Plan (NEP) introduced limited economic liberties after the Russian Civil War.
    • Stalin's Five-Year Plans aimed at rapid industrialization but led to agricultural collectivization and widespread famine.
  • Mexico:
    • The Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) dominated Mexican politics, implementing corporatist policies.
    • Successful land reforms and nationalization of industries like oil characterized this period.
  • Rise of Right-Wing Governments:
    • Fascism emerged in Italy under Mussolini, glorifying militarism and suppressing opposition.
    • Spain saw a civil war between Nationalists and Republicans, with foreign involvement exacerbating the conflict.
  • Brazil:
    • Getulio Vargas's regime in Brazil adopted pro-industrial policies but restricted political freedoms.
    • Despite alignment with the Allies in World War II, Brazil's dictatorship faced scrutiny for its repressive measures.

7.5 - Unresolved Tensions After World War I

• Post-World War I, economic crises continued, while territorial disputes remained unresolved:
  • European powers and Japan retained or expanded control over colonial territories.
  • Growing anti-imperial resistance emerged in Asia and Africa, aligning with global trends like the breakup of European empires and the rise of communism.
• The Effects of World War I varied globally:
  • The US prospered economically due to war-related trade.
  • European nations suffered severe economic devastation.
  • Colonies contributed troops to the Allied war effort, leading to increased hopes for independence.
• Colonial lands saw rising nationalist movements post-war:
  • Colonial soldiers' war experiences raised expectations for self-determination.
  • However, the peace conference's Big Three showed little interest in granting colonies independence, extending colonial control instead.
• Mandate System:
  • The League of Nations established mandates for former Ottoman territories.
  • European powers increased their imperial holdings through mandates.
  • Arab resentment led to Pan-Arabism, seeking unification across North Africa and the Middle East.
• Nationalist Movements in Asia:
  • Korea, China, and Japan experienced nationalist movements.
  • Korea's March First Movement protested Japanese control.
  • China's May Fourth Movement symbolized growing nationalism and demand for democracy, with some turning to Marxism.
  • The Chinese Civil War erupted between communists and nationalists.
• Japanese Expansion:
  • Japan invaded Manchuria in 1931, creating the puppet state of Manchukuo.
  • Japan continued its expansion, seizing territories until the end of World War II.
  • Japan's Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere claimed liberation but experienced conquest.
• Resistance in Africa:
  • African intellectuals educated in Europe recognized colonial discrimination.
  • Africans resisted colonial rule, with strikes and protests in French West Africa.
  • Strikes protested discriminatory policies and sometimes achieved concessions.

7.6 - Causes of World War II

• Causes of World War II:
  • Economic instability post-World War I led to civil unrest in Italy and Germany.
  • Rise of fascism in Italy under Mussolini and the Nazi Party in Germany due to economic downturn and territorial grievances.
• Path to War:
  • Hitler's extreme views on Aryan superiority and expansionist vision fueled the persecution of minorities and land seizure.
  • The rise of Nazism in Germany was fueled by economic despair and resentment towards the Weimar Republic.
    • Hitler's manipulation, anti-Semitic propaganda, and establishment of a dictatorship.
• Nazi Germany's Aggressive Militarism:
  • Hitler broke the Treaty of Versailles by expanding his military and seizing the Rhineland in 1936.
  • The British policy of appeasement failed to deter Hitler's expansionist ambitions.
• Expansion and Annexation:
  • German-Austrian unification (Anschluss) and the annexation of the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia.
  • Conflict over Poland escalated into World War II in Europe, marked by Germany's invasion in 1939.
• Japan's Expansion in Asia:
  • Japan's aggression in Korea and China culminated in the invasion of Manchuria in 1931.
  • The full-scale invasion of China in 1937 marked the start of World War II in Asia.

7.7 - Conducting World War II

• Methods Governments Used to Conduct War:
  • Intense nationalism and ideological appeals, as demonstrated by Churchill's speech, mobilized populations.
  • Utilization of new military technology and tactics, like the atomic bomb and "total war," disregarded traditional laws of warfare, increasing casualties.
• Japan and Imperialist Policies:
  • Japan's militaristic government pursued imperialist ambitions, leading to conflict in the Pacific.
  • Ambitions included the creation of a "New Order in East Asia" and expansion into Southeast Asia to counter Western powers.
• Germany’s Early Victories and Challenges:
  • Hitler's blitzkrieg strategy led to the swift conquests of Poland, Denmark, Norway, Belgium, and France.
  • Britain sought support from the United States, leading to agreements like the Destroyers-for-Bases and Lend-Lease Act.
• The Battle of Britain:
  • Germany's air campaign against Britain aimed to weaken defenses for a potential invasion.
  • British resilience and superior air capabilities thwarted German plans, postponing the invasion indefinitely.
• War on the Soviet Union:
  • Hitler turned eastward, invading the Soviet Union to eliminate Bolshevism and acquire Lebensraum.
  • Initial successes were hindered by the harsh Russian winter and determined Soviet defense.
• Japan Overreaches:
  • Japan's surprise attack on Pearl Harbor drew the United States into the war.
  • Initial victories in the Pacific were met with determined Allied resistance, shifting momentum.
• Home Fronts:
  • Total war mobilization in countries like the United States involved civilian populations in war efforts.
  • Contrast in approaches: the U.S. utilized industrial capacity and encouraged women's participation; Germany relied on forced labor.
• The Tide Turns in the European Theater:
  • Allied victories in North Africa and Stalingrad halted Axis momentum in Europe.
  • D-Day invasion and subsequent campaigns led to the liberation of Western Europe from German control.
• The Tide Turns in the Pacific Theater:
  • Allied naval victories at Coral Sea and Midway halted the Japanese advance.
  • Island-hopping strategy and technological advancements shifted momentum against Japan.
• The Last Years of the War:
  • Allied advances in Europe and the Pacific put the Axis powers on the defensive.
  • The surrender of Germany and Japan marked the end of World War II.
• Consequences of World War II:
  • World War II was the deadliest conflict in history, reshaping global geopolitics and ideologies.
  • It led to significant changes in international relations and power dynamics, setting the stage for the Cold War.

7.8 - Mass Atrocities

• Causes and Consequences of Mass Atrocities:
  • Genocide, ethnic violence, and atrocities rose amid extremist power.
  • Mass killings occurred during World War I and II, as well as post-war conflicts.
• Atrocities in Europe and the Middle East:
  • The Ottoman Empire perpetrated the Armenian genocide during World War I.
  • U.S. intervention in World War I tilted the balance, leading to the Armistice.
• Genocide and Human Rights:
  • Nazis executed the Holocaust, targeting Jews and other groups.
  • Japanese atrocities included the Rape of Nanking and forced labor programs.
• Bosnia and Rwanda:
  • The ethnic conflict led to genocide in Bosnia and Rwanda.
  • Political instability and ethnic tensions fueled violence in both regions.
• Sudan and International Responses:
  • The Darfur genocide was perpetrated by the Sudanese government and the Janjaweed militia.
  • The international community's response to genocides highlighted failures in human rights protection.

7.9 - Causation in Global Conflict

• Significance of Global Conflict (1900-Present):
  • Power shift from Western Europe to the United States due to World Wars.
  • Emergence of new states post-colonialism and collapse of empires.
• Political Causes of 20th-Century Conflict:
  • World War I: Total war fueled by nationalism, alliances, and imperial rivalries.
  • Fascism led to aggression in Germany, Italy, and Japan, triggering World War II.
• Economic Causes of 20th Century Conflict:
  • Control of markets and resources drove imperialism and territorial expansion.
  • The Great Depression and economic crises fueled the rise of populist leaders like Hitler.
• Effects of 20th-Century Global Conflict:
  • Advances in science and technology intensified warfare, resulting in massive civilian casualties.
  • Political changes included regime changes, the rise of totalitarianism, and independence movements.
  • The weakening of colonial powers and advocacy for self-determination led to decolonization.
  • A shift of power from Western Europe to the United States, with the emergence of the Soviet Union as a superpower.

This is the end of this guide. Unit 6 is by far the most information-rich, and it is recommended that you come back multiple times to review different parts of the unit rather than skimming through the material once.

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