Unit 5: Revolutions

5.1 - The Enlightenment

• Enlightenment Thinkers Emphasized Reason and Individualism:
  • Descartes and others prioritized reason over tradition.
  • This period challenged monarchies and church authority.
• Optimism and Progress Defined Enlightenment Thought:
  • Enlightenment ideals promoted individualism, freedom, and progress.
  • Intellectuals believed applying reason would lead to societal advancement.
• New Ideas Led to Social and Political Change:
  • Schools of thought like socialism and liberalism emerged.
  • These clashed with conservatism, favored by European elites.
• Roots of Enlightenment Thought:
  • Bacon emphasized empirical scientific methods.
  • Hobbes and Locke explored social contract theory.
• Influence of the Philosophes:
  • Enlightenment thinkers like Voltaire advocated for civil liberties.
  • Montesquieu's ideas influenced constitutional systems.
• Contributions of Rousseau and Adam Smith:
  • Rousseau expanded social contract theory and inspired revolutionaries.
  • Adam Smith laid the foundations for capitalism and free trade.
• Deism and Thomas Paine's Advocacy:
  • Deists viewed divinity as setting natural laws in motion.
  • Paine's writings, including "The Age of Reason," defended Deism.
• Intellectual Trends from 1250 to 1789:
  • Thinkers across periods contributed to intellectual evolution.
  • From Aquinas to Rousseau, ideas evolved toward reason and human rights.
• Social and Political Impact:
  • Enlightenment ideas led to reforms in education, politics, and society.
  • Movements like feminism and abolitionism gained momentum.
• The emergence of Zionism:
  • Zionism aimed at establishing a Jewish homeland.
  • The movement grew due to anti-Semitism and the Dreyfus Affair.

5.2 - Nationalism and Revolutions

• American Revolution:
  • Roots in Enlightenment philosophy and economic grievances against British mercantilism.
  • The Declaration of Independence (1776) reflects Enlightenment ideals.
• French Revolution:
  • Influenced by Enlightenment ideas and economic crisis.
  • Formation of the National Assembly after the Estates-General meeting.
  • Bastille stormed in 1789, leading to the Reign of Terror and the Rise of Napoleon.
• Haitian Revolution:
  • Inspired by the American and French revolutions.
  • Led by Toussaint L'Ouverture, resulting in independence in 1804.
• Latin American Revolutions:
  • Creoles led movements against Spanish rule for economic and political autonomy.
  • Bolivar played a significant role in Latin American independence.
• Nationalism and Unification in Europe:
  • Italy: Cavour and Garibaldi's efforts led to unification.
  • Germany: Bismarck's realpolitik resulted in the German Empire by 1871.
  • Rise of Italy and Germany as new powers.
  • Increased nationalism led to World War I.
• Balkan and Ottoman Nationalism:
  • Balkan regions sought independence and were influenced by Enlightenment ideas.
  • Ottomanism intensified nationalist urges, leading to independence movements.
• Future of Nationalism:
  • Signs of decline in Europe include cooperation and integration.
  • A potential shift towards larger political groupings beyond nationalism.

5.3 - Industrial Revolution Begins

• Agricultural Improvements:
  • Crop rotation, seed drill, and introduction of potatoes increased food production.
  • Demographic changes fueled by improved agriculture supported the industrial workforce.
• Preindustrial Societies:
  • The Rise of cotton demand led to the cottage industry system.
  • The cottage industry transitioned to factory-based production with technological advancements.
• Growth of Technology:
  • Spinning Jenny, the water frame, and the division of labor revolutionized the textile industry.
  • Interchangeable parts systems and assembly lines increased efficiency.
• Britain’s Industrial Advantages:
  • Geographic advantages, coal resources, and colonies provided raw materials.
  • Natural river networks and strong fleets facilitated transportation.
  • Legal protection of private property and the growing population supported industrial growth.
• Urbanization:
  • The enclosure movement displaced farmers, driving rural-to-urban migration.
  • Urbanization fueled the workforce for burgeoning industries.

5.4 - Industrialization Spreads

• Spread of Industrialization:
  • Britain's cottage industry was supplanted by factory-based cotton manufacture.
  • Belgium, France, Germany, Russia, Japan, and the United States followed Britain's lead.
• France and Germany:
  • France: Sparsely populated urban centers, disrupted by the French Revolution.
  • Germany: Fragmented politically until unification in 1871, then rapidly industrialized.
• The United States:
  • Leading industrial force by 1900, benefited from human capital influx via immigration.
• Agricultural Products for Trade (19th Century):
  • Rubber (Britain), Cotton (Britain), Cooking oil (Britain), Refined sugar (Britain), Textiles (Britain).
• Russia:
  • Industrialization focused on railroads and exports, and became the fourth-largest steel producer by 1900.
• Japan:
  • Defensive modernization in the mid-19th Century led to the emergence of a leading world power by the late 19th Century.
• Shifts in Manufacturing:
  • The decline of Middle Eastern and Asian manufacturing share in the global market.
• Impact of British Colonial Rule:
  • Shipbuilding and ironworks declined in India due to mismanagement and tariffs.
  • British policies favoring British mills undermined textile production in India and Egypt.

5.5 - Technology in the Industrial Age

• The Coal Revolution:
  • James Watt's steam engine revolutionized by harnessing coal power.
  • Steam power enabled steamships, enhancing mobility and reliability.
  • Coal facilitated the mass production of iron, leading to innovations like the Bessemer Process.
• A Second Industrial Revolution:
  • The United States, Great Britain, and Germany were pivotal in the late 19th-early 20th-century advancements.
  • Steel production surged with the Bessemer Process.
  • Oil drilling commenced in the mid-1800s, leading to innovations in energy use.
  • Electricity is harnessed through effective generators, leading to electrification and communication advancements.
• Global Trade and Migration:
  • Railroads, steamships, and telegraphs revolutionized exploration, development, and communication.
  • Industrialized countries intensified industrialization, increasing demand for resources.
  • Colonization aimed at securing resource access and markets.
  • Transportation advancements opened interior regions for exploration and development.

5.6 - Government’s Role in Industrialization

• Ottoman Empire:
  • Failed adoption of Western technology and Enlightenment ideas.
  • Corruption, ethnic nationalism, and internal strife led to decline.
  • Fragmentation post-World War I was replaced by the Republic of Turkey and independent states.
• China:
  • Humiliations from Europeans in the 19th Century hindered industrialization efforts.
  • A weak central government struggled to promote industrialization effectively.
• Japan:
  • Active pursuit of Western innovations to achieve parity with Western countries.
  • The Meiji Restoration was marked by reforms based on Western institutions and technologies.
• Ottoman Industrialization:
  • Muhammad Ali's reforms in Egypt aimed at modernization and industrialization.
  • State-sponsored industrialization initiatives in textiles, armaments, and shipbuilding.
• Japan and the Meiji Restoration:
  • The threat of Western powers prompted the Meiji Restoration in 1868.
  • Reforms included the abolition of feudalism, the establishment of a constitutional monarchy, and military reorganization.
  • Investments in infrastructure, education, and key industries drove rapid economic growth.
• Role of Private Investments:
  • Zaibatsu played a crucial role in Japan's industrialization, akin to conglomerates in the West.
  • Private investment incentivized technological innovation and industrial growth.

5.7 - Economic Developments and Innovations

• Adam Smith and Capitalism:
  • "Wealth of Nations" (1776) advocated capitalism and private entrepreneurship.
  • Shift from mercantilism to laissez-faire policies promoting minimal government involvement in commerce.
• Emergence of Transnational Institutions:
  • Banks like HSBC and manufacturers like Unilever supported economic ideas promoting trade.
  • Trade expansion increased the availability, affordability, and variety of consumer goods.
• Effects on Business Organization:
  • The Rise of giant corporations to minimize risk during the Industrial Revolution.
  • Corporations facilitated monopolies and transnational operations, leading to wealth and influence.
• Corporations:
  • Flexible structure for large-scale economic activity, replacing sole proprietorships and partnerships.
  • Four features: Limited Liability, Transferability of Shares, Juridical Personality, and Indefinite Duration.
• Banking and Finance:
  • Insurance, especially marine insurance, reduces risk for merchants and entrepreneurs.
  • The Rise in the number of banks provided reliable places for deposits and loans for business ventures.
• Effect on Mass Culture:
  • A culture of consumerism and leisure developed among the working and middle classes.
  • Increased advertising targeted the middle class with disposable income.
  • Corporations support the popularization of leisure activities like biking and boating.
  • Public culture commercialization is seen in the construction of music halls and public parks catering to diverse social classes.

5.8 - Reactions to the Industrial Economy

• Resistance and Reform in Industrial Societies:
  • "Mother" Jones and labor activism highlighted harsh industrial conditions.
  • Philosophers like John Stuart Mill and utopian socialists sought social reforms.
  • Formation of labor unions for better pay and working conditions.
• Labor Unions and Social Reforms:
  • The Sadler Report (1833) raised awareness of poor working conditions.
  • Labor unions advocated for bargaining rights, resulting in reforms like minimum wage laws and limits on working hours.
  • Expansion of voting rights and child labor regulations improved workers' lives.
• Intellectual Reaction:
  • A shift from individual entrepreneurship to transnational businesses led to new ideologies.
  • Utilitarianism advocated gradual reforms for the greatest good.
  • Karl Marx's critique of capitalism and advocacy for socialism.
• Reform Efforts in the Ottoman Empire:
  • Mahmud II's reforms modernized Ottoman administration and law.
  • Tanzimat reforms (1839-1876) aimed at centralizing government and secularizing education.
  • Economic changes and legal reforms reshaped society, but conservative opposition persisted.
• Reform Efforts in China:
  • The Self-Strengthening Movement aimed at modernizing China's military and economy.
  • The Hundred Days of Reform, led by Kang Youwei, focused on sweeping changes, including abolishing civil service exams.
  • Conservative opposition, led by Empress Dowager Cixi, halted reforms and resisted foreign influence.
• Reform Efforts in Japan:
  • End of the samurai system and rapid modernization during the Meiji Restoration.
  • Liberalization led to improvements in literacy, industrialization, and democratic traits.
  • The Rise of arominance in government marked a decline in liberalization efforts.

5.9 - Society and the Industrial Age

• Urbanization and Social Impact:
  • Charles Dickens illustrated contrasts between middle-class comfort and urban poverty.
  • Rapid urban growth led to inhumane living conditions for the working class.
  • Municipal reforms improved sanitation, leading to increased living standards over time.
• Effects on Class Structure:
  • The emergence of the working class, middle class, and industrialist elite due to industrialization.
  • Industrialists replaced the landed aristocracy as societal leaders.
• Effect on Women's Lives:
  • Working-class women labored in factories while middle-class women were idealized as homemakers.
  • Industrialization also spurred feminism, opening new opportunities for women's equality.
• Effects on the Environment:
  • The Industrial Revolution relied on fossil fuels, leading to air and water pollution.
  • Pollution causes respiratory problems and diseases like cholera and typhoid.
• Legacy of the Industrial Revolution:
  • Mass production made goods more accessible but also led to environmental degradation.
  • Global inequalities increased as industrialized nations sought resources, leading to colonization.

5.10 - Continuity and Change in the Industrial Age

• Economic Continuities and Changes
  • The Industrial Revolution transformed production, introducing mass production and automation.
  • The West led industrialization due to natural resources, trade routes, and financial capital.
• Social Continuities and Changes
  • Industrialization led to urbanization and the emergence of a working class.
  • The middle class expanded, with new occupations like factory managers.
  • Industrialists replaced the landed aristocracy as the wealthiest class.
• Gender and Industrialization
  • Women's roles shifted due to factory work, becoming vital contributors to family income.
• Political Continuities and Changes
  • Enlightenment ideals influenced political demands, including protests for voting rights.
  • The Revolutions of 1848 reflected calls for press freedom, parliamentary checks on monarchs, and national independence.

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