Unit 4: Transoceanic Interconnections

4.1 - Technological Innovations

• Introduction of Navigation Technologies:
  • Magnetic compass and astrolabe facilitated navigation, originating from China and improved by Muslim navigators.
  • Caravel, a three-masted ship developed by the Portuguese in the 15th century, enhanced sea survival during storms.
  • Cartography, knowledge of currents, wind patterns, and star navigation improved maritime exploration.
• Demographic Pressures and Exploration Motivations:
  • Population growth and inheritance laws drove Europeans to seek new lands for opportunities.
  • Religious minorities sought tolerance and settlement areas in the early 17th century.
  • Europeans ventured into exploration motivated by wealth, conversions, and adventure.
• Transoceanic Trade Developments:
  • European involvement in Indian Ocean trade increased in the 16th century, facing competition from Middle Eastern traders.
  • Christopher Columbus's voyages connected Afro-Eurasia and the Americas, initiating extensive trade networks.
  • European maritime empires emerged, trading various goods from the Americas, Africa, and Asia.
• Technological Contributions from Classical, Islamic, and Asian Cultures:
  • The exchange of sailing knowledge between classical Greek, Islamic, and Asian cultures influenced European naval advancements.
  • Prince Henry the Navigator promoted exploration along Africa's Atlantic coast, facilitating Portugal's maritime expansion.
• Advances in Ideas and Equipment:
  • Scholars' discoveries, like Newton's gravitation and accurate wind records, enhanced navigation safety.
  • Cartography improvements aided navigation accuracy, dating back to ancient times.
  • The development of rudders, lateen sails, and magnetic compasses revolutionized ship maneuverability and direction finding.
• Long-Term Effects of Technological Exchange:
  • Navigation techniques fusion spurred rapid exploration and global trade expansion.
  • Gunpowder's introduction aided European conquests but also led to pirate activities.
  • Islam spread in North and East Africa due to the Abbasid Empire's influence and trade interactions.
  • Navigational knowledge dissemination continued, evidenced by Tsar Peter the Great's interest in European technology in the 17th century.

4.2 - Exploration: Causes and Events

• Causes and Motivations for Maritime Exploration:
  • Economic incentives, religious zeal, and political ambition drove exploration.
  • European states sought new trade routes due to the Italian monopoly on Asian trade.
• State-Sponsored Expansion:
  • European states sponsored voyages to expand authority, resources, and wealth.
  • State support was crucial due to the high cost of exploration.
• Portuguese Exploration:
  • Prince Henry the Navigator initiated exploration along African and Indian routes.
  • Vasco da Gama reached India, establishing Portuguese trade dominance.
• Portuguese Expansion in Asia:
  • Admiral Afonso de Albuquerque secured Portuguese control in the Indian Ocean.
  • Portuguese presence influenced Chinese society and attracted missionaries.
• Trading Post Empire:
  • Portugal established a global trading post empire with forts and monopolistic policies.
  • Dutch competition and corruption weakened Portuguese control.
• Spanish Exploration and Conquest:
  • Ferdinand Magellan's voyage circumnavigated the globe, enriching Spain.
  • Spanish colonization in the Philippines and the Americas yielded gold and silver.
• French and English Exploration:
  • French and English explorers sought new routes to Asia, finding wealth in the fur trade and colonization.
  • English colonization in Virginia challenged Spanish dominance in the Americas.
• Dutch Exploration and Colonization:
  • Dutch claims in North America, including New Amsterdam, fueled trade networks.
  • Dutch merchants thrived, trading fur, crops, and manufactured goods with the Netherlands.

4.3 - Columbian Exchange

• Disastrous Impact on Native Peoples:
  • Conquest and colonization devastated indigenous populations with disease and warfare.
  • New cultures emerged from the interaction of indigenous American, European, and African traditions.
• Disease and Population Decline:
  • Smallpox, measles, and other diseases from Europe caused catastrophic population loss.
  • Indigenous American populations declined by over 50%, some by up to 90%.
• Exchange of Foods and Animals:
  • The Columbian Exchange introduced new crops and livestock to both hemispheres.
  • Europeans brought horses and agricultural staples to the Americas; indigenous crops like maize spread to Europe.
• Cash Crops and Forced Labor:
  • Enslaved Africans brought to the Americas introduced new foods and cultures.
  • Sugar plantations in Brazil and the Caribbean relied on African labor, which led to demographic shifts.
• African Presence and Cultural Influence:
  • Enslaved Africans retained elements of their cultures, such as music and food.
  • Creole languages and musical styles like jazz and reggae emerged from African influences.
• Environmental Impact:
  • Intensive agriculture in the Americas led to deforestation and soil depletion.
  • European settlements strained water resources and increased pollution.

4.4 - Maritime Empires Link Regions

• European Empire Establishment (1450-1750):
  • European nations established maritime empires driven by political, religious, and economic motives.
  • Asian trade exchanged silver and gold for luxury goods, while American colonies relied on agriculture.
• Labor Systems in the Americas:
  • Introduced indentured servitude and chattel slavery to American plantations.
  • The growth of plantations increased demand for enslaved Africans, leading to social and cultural changes.
• State-Building and Empire Expansion:
  • European explorations laid the foundation for maritime empires.
  • Trading posts were established in Africa and Asia, with some local rulers participating in the slave trade.
• European Rivalries:
  • France and Britain competed globally, establishing trading posts in India.
  • The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) led to Britain's victory in India and France's expulsion.
• Colonization in the Americas:
  • Spanish and Portuguese conquests devastated the Aztec and Inca empires, leading to colonization.
  • The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) divided the Americas between Spain and Portugal.
• Economic Systems and Labor:
  • Indian Ocean trading networks adapted to European influences.
  • Spanish exploitation of gold and silver in the Americas fueled mercantilism and labor coercion.
• Transport and Treatment of Enslaved Africans:
  • Enslaved Africans were violently captured, transported in inhumane conditions, and sold in the Americas.
  • The slave trade caused demographic, social, and cultural changes in Africa and the Americas.
• Indian Ocean Slave Trade:
  • East Africans were enslaved and transported to the Middle East and India, contributing to cultural exchange.

4.5 - Maritime Empires Develop

• Dutch East India Company Charter (1602):
  • All residents are allowed to invest, democratizing participation.
• Maritime Empires' Economic Transformation:
  • Shift to large-scale international trade via joint-stock companies.
  • Opened new ocean trade routes, fostering a global economy.
• 17th Century Economic Strategies:
  • Emphasized exporting goods for gold and silver accumulation.
  • Capital accumulation increased through long-distance markets.
  • The rise of joint-stock companies reduced investment risks.
• Dutch Dominance in Commerce and Finance:
  • Dutch-led trade routes, banking, and stock exchange.
  • Vryburg and the Dutch East India Company drove profits.
• Triangular Trade and Atlantic Slave Trade:
  • European demand was fueled by the Atlantic slave trade.
  • West Africa became a major source of enslaved labor.
  • Sugar, tobacco, and enslaved labor were trade staples.
• Colonial Administration and Cultural Suppression:
  • Colonial administrations replaced Indigenous political structures.
  • Cultural suppression led to the loss of indigenous culture and history.
• Syncretic Belief Systems:
  • African and indigenous religions blended with Christianity.
  • Examples include Santeria, Vodun, and Candomblé.
• Global Interactions and Religious Conflicts:
  • Spread of Islam and syncretic religions due to global interactions.
  • Religious differences fueled conflicts, such as the Sunni-Shi'a split.

4.6 - Internal and External Challenges to State Power

• Resistance to Portugal in Africa:
  • Dutch and English push Portugal out of South Asia.
  • Ana Nzinga allies with the Dutch against Portuguese raids.
• Local Resistance in Russia:
  • Serfs were oppressed by nobility; tied to the land, and sold with it.
  • Cossack rebellion against Catherine the Great's reforms.
• Rebellion in South Asia:
  • The Maratha Empire rises against Mughal rule, ending it.
• Revolts in the Spanish Empire:
  • The Pueblo Revolt in New Mexico against Spanish colonization.
  • Maroons in the Caribbean fight for freedom.
• Struggles for Power in England and Its Colonies:
  • Maroon wars and slave revolts in Caribbean colonies.
  • Metacom’s War in New England against British Colonization.
  • The Glorious Revolution strengthened Parliament's power in England.

4.7 - Changing Social Hierarchies

• Treatment of Jews in Europe:
  • Expelled from England (1290), France (1394), and Spain (1492).
  • The Ottoman Empire provided refuge for fleeing Jews.
• Social Classes Across Civilizations:
  • Distinct hierarchies: royalty, nobility, scholars, soldiers, merchants, artisans, peasants, serfs, enslaved.
  • Policies discriminated based on religion, ethnicity, and class.
• Gunpowder Empires:
  • Ottoman Empire: Warrior aristocracy vs. ulama; Janissaries' rise and coups.
  • Relative tolerance towards Jews and Christians in the Ottoman Empire.
  • The Mughal Empire's religious tolerance under Akbar the Great.
• Women in the Ottoman Empire:
  • Roxelana's rise to power; influence in harem politics.
• Manchu Power in the Qing Dynasty:
  • Ethnic tensions; assimilation policies.
  • Han Chinese massacres for non-compliance.
• European Social Hierarchy:
  • Royalty, aristocracy, middle class, peasants, serfs, enslaved.
  • Nobility's struggle for power against royalty and emerging middle class.
• Growing Acceptance of Jews:
  • Expelled from Spain but resettled; Sephardic and Ashkenazi distinctions.
  • The decline in prejudice with the scientific revolution and the Enlightenment.
• Russian Social Structure:
  • Boyars' tensions with rulers; Ivan the Terrible's consolidation of power.
  • Development of serfdom; loss of personal freedom.
• Social Structures in the Americas:
  • New hierarchy based on race and ancestry.
  • Casta system in Latin America: peninsulares, criollos, castas.
  • Indigenous peoples and enslaved Africans are at the bottom.

4.8 - Continuity and Change from 1450 to 1750

• Transoceanic Travel and Trade:
  • The Columbian Exchange facilitated biological exchange.
  • Emergence of Atlantic System: Western Europe, Western Africa, the Americas.
  • Technology advancements enabled transoceanic voyages.
• Economic Changes:
  • Integration of the Western Hemisphere into the global trade network.
  • Rise of maritime trading empires: Portuguese, Dutch, English.
  • Colonization in the Americas was fueled by the discovery of silver deposits.
• Mercantilism and Capitalism:
  • Mercantilist policies were designed to ensure the ruler's income.
  • Transition to capitalism with joint-stock companies.
• Effects of the New Global Economy:
  • Wealth influx into Europe fueled the expansion of the middle class.
  • Inflation is due to an increase in the circulating money.
  • Funding for the arts increased; art symbolized global trade.
  • Rise of demand for labor: African slave trade, indentured servants.
  • The emergence of new social structures in American colonies based on racial/ethnic identity.

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