Unit 3: Land-Based Empires

3.1 - Expansion of European, East Asian, and Gunpowder Empires

• Gunpowder Empires (1450-1750):
  • The emergence of large, multiethnic states in Southwest, Central, and South Asia, relying on firearms.
  • The Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires are prominent examples.
  • Militaristic societies have splendid artistic and architectural legacies.
• Europe (1450-1750):
  • Political and economic development marked the transition from the medieval to the early modern period.
  • Rise of powerful monarchies like the Tudors, Valois, and Spanish rulers.
  • Expansion through overseas explorations and colonization.
• Russia (1450-1750):
  • Positioned for trade between Europe and Asia.
  • Ivan IV expands eastward, relying increasingly on gunpowder.
  • Expansion to control fur trade routes and advance to the Pacific Ocean.
• East Asia (1450-1750):
  • The Ming Dynasty stabilized China, repelling Mongol invasions.
  • The Qing Dynasty expanded China's borders under Kangxi and Qianlong.
  • Conflicts with the West over trade privileges and internal challenges.
• Islamic Gunpowder Empires:
  • Origins in Turkic nomads' conquests, reliance on gunpowder, and conquests.
  • Tamerlane's invasions set the stage for the rise of the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal.
  • The Ottoman Empire reached its peak under Suleiman I, but later declined due to weak leadership.
• Decline of Gunpowder Empires:
  • The naval defeat at Lepanto and internal strife weakened the Ottoman Empire.
  • The Safavid Empire declined due to economic mismanagement and internal rebellion.
  • The Mughal Empire was weakened by corruption, military failures, and internal conflicts, paving the way for British dominance in India.

3.2 - Administration of Empires

• The Monarchy is seen as supreme, and rulers were considered to be God's lieutenants on earth.
  • King James I emphasized the divine right of kings
• Methods of consolidating power varied:
  • Centralization of power in England and France through control of taxes, military, and religion
  • Different methods were used in other states: building temples, paying the military elite, and establishing bureaucratic systems
• Centralizing control in Europe:
  • England: The Tudors relied on justices of the peace, and Parliament checked the monarch's powers
  • France: Absolutism under Louis XIV, intendants oversaw provinces
• Reining in control in the Russian Empire:
  • Ivan IV used paramilitary force (oprichnina) to control Boyars
  • Peter the Great reformed the government, created provinces, and established the senate
• Centralizing control in the Ottoman Empire:
  • The Devshirme system recruited Christian boys for military and government service(Janissaries).
• Centralizing control in East and South Asia:
  • The Ming Dynasty in China restored the civil service exam and bureaucracy
  • The Tokugawa shogunate reorganized governance in Japan, centralized power
  • The Mughal Empire under Akbar used zamindars, and later saw the rise of powerful local officials
• Legitimizing power through religion and art:
  • European monarchs used divine right and built grand structures (e.g., the Palace of Versailles)
  • Other rulers promoted Islam (e.g., Askia the Great), built architectural wonders (e.g., the Taj Mahal)
• Financing empires:
  • Various methods of taxation used (e.g., land tax in Russia, tax farming in the Ottoman Empire)
  • Tributes collected from other states as a sign of respect and allegiance

3.3 - Belief Systems within Empires

• Christianity:
  • French King Henry IV converted to Catholicism for political stability.
  • Religious factions emerged in Europe, leading to significant historical shifts.
  • The Protestant Reformation challenged the Roman Catholic Church's authority.
  • Lutheranism: Martin Luther's 95 Theses criticized Church practices.
  • Calvinism: John Calvin's teachings emphasized predestination.
  • Anglicanism: King Henry VIII broke from the Catholic Church to remarry.
  • Counter-Reformation efforts included the Inquisition, Jesuits, and Council of Trent.
• Russia:
  • Peter the Great centralized power, reforming the Orthodox Church.
  • Reforms faced resistance from peasants and Old Believers.
• Religious Conflicts:
  • Wars, like the Thirty Years' War, ravaged Europe due to religious divisions.
  • France experienced Catholic-Huguenot conflicts, later mitigated by Henry IV.
• Islamic Empires:
  • The Ottoman Empire replaced the Byzantine Orthodox with Islamic rule.
  • The Safavid Empire adopted strict Shi'a Islam, causing tension with the Sunni Ottomans.
  • The Mughal Empire under Akbar promoted religious tolerance and prosperity.
• Religious Schisms Through History:
  • Buddhism, Islam, Christianity: Disagreements over leadership, doctrine, and rituals.
• Scientific Revolution:
  • Scientific thinking emerged amidst religious turmoil, based on reason and evidence.
  • Francis Bacon's empiricism challenged traditional beliefs.
  • Isaac Newton's Principia influenced science and led to Enlightenment ideals.

3.4 - Comparison in Land-Based Empires

• Military Might:
  • Well-trained, organized armies with gunpowder weapons dominated.
  • Elite soldiers like Janissaries and Ghulams bolstered rulers' power.
  • Warfare among empires, influenced by religion and territorial disputes, was common.
• Centralized Bureaucracy:
  • Empires established organized bureaucracies to govern diverse populations.
  • Ming and Manchu China used civil service exams, while the Ottoman Empire relied on the devshirme system.
  • Taxation was vital to sustain bureaucracies and militaries.
• Striving for Legitimacy:
  • Religion, art, and architecture were used to unite diverse subjects.
  • Islamic rulers referred to titles like "caliph," while European monarchs claimed divine right.
  • Monumental architecture, religious rituals, and patronage of the arts symbolized legitimacy.
• Decline of Empires:
  • Gunpowder Empires faltered due to competition with European trading companies, internal conflicts, and weak leadership.
  • Religious schisms, like Sunni-Shi'a divisions, weakened empires like the Mughals and Safavids.
• Interactions and Influences:
  • Cultural blending occurred as conquered peoples influenced conquerors.
  • The interconnectedness of hemispheres led to further cultural exchange.
• Examples:
  • Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires showcased military strength, bureaucratic organization, and cultural patronage.
  • Ming China, the Aztecs, and the Inca Empires employed centralized bureaucracies and taxation systems.