Unit 2: Networks of Exchange from 1200 to 1450

2.1 - The Silk Roads

• Revival of Silk Roads:
  • The land route of the Silk Roads became vibrant and essential for interregional trade in the 14th and 15th centuries.
• Causes of Exchange Network Growth:
  • Crusades introduced fabrics and spices to Europe, while sea routes across the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean remained active.
  • Tang China contributed the compass, paper, and gunpowder to global trade.
  • The rise of the Mongol Empire unified the Silk Roads, improved safety, and established new trade channels.
  • Transportation Improvements:
    • Caravans made travel safer.
    • China's naval advancements aided navigation and ship control.
• Effects of Exchange Network Growth:
  • The development of oases and cities along the Silk Roads facilitated trade and cultural exchange.
  • Commercial innovations like flying cash and banking houses supported increasing trade.
  • Demand for luxury goods led to expanded production and proto-industrialization in China.

2.2 - The Mongol Empire and the Modern World

• Mongol Conquests:
  • Mongols brought destruction across Eurasia in the 13th century.
  • Mongol atrocities were widely reported, but they also facilitated interregional connections and exchange.
• Mongols and Their Surroundings:
  • Mongols were nomadic clans north of the Gobi Desert, coveting wealth closer to the Silk Roads.
  • Genghis Khan, born Temujin, united the Mongols through alliances and ruthless tactics.
• Beginning of Conquest:
  • Genghis Khan expanded eastward, conquering the Jin Empire and beyond.
  • Mongol soldiers were highly skilled and disciplined, employing efficient communication and military strategies.
• Genghis Khan at Peace:
  • Established Pax Mongolica, ensuring the safety of trade routes and promoting religious tolerance.
  • Genghis Khan's governance focused on centralization and infrastructure development.
• Mongol Empires Expand:
  • The grandsons of Genghis Khan expanded the empire further into Asia and Europe.
  • Batu led the Golden Horde westward into Russia, creating tributary relationships.
  • Hulegu invaded Abbasid territories, leading to the destruction of Baghdad.
  • Kublai Khan established the Yuan Dynasty in China, promoting religious tolerance and cultural exchange.
• Mongols Lose Power:
  • Mongols faced resistance and alienated the Chinese by promoting foreigners in the government.
  • Attempts to expand beyond China failed, leading to the decline of Mongol rule and eventual overthrow.
• Long-Term Impact of Mongolian Invasions:
  • Mongols facilitated interregional trade and cultural exchange.
  • The transmission of knowledge and technology occurred between different regions.
  • Mongols inadvertently spread the bubonic plague.
  • Mongol governance influenced centralized power structures globally.
  • Mongol military tactics led to the decline of knights and walled European cities.

2.3 - Exchange in the Indian Ocean

• Expansion of Indian Ocean Trade:
  • Islamic merchants connected regions from North Africa to South Asia, fostering global exchange networks.
  • South Asia, central to the Indian Ocean, thrived in trade due to its strategic location.
• Causes of Expanded Exchange:
  • Spread of Islam:
    • Islamic expansion facilitated trade connections across East Africa, Southeast Asia, and South Asia.
    • West Coast cities like Calicut flourished as hubs for trade with East Africa and Southwest Asia.
  • Increased Demand for Specialized Products:
    • Regions specialized in products like fabrics, spices, porcelain, and enslaved people.
    • Demand for unique goods drove trade expansion and economic prosperity.
  • Environmental Knowledge:
    • Understanding monsoon winds was crucial for navigating the Indian Ocean.
    • Advances in maritime technology, like lateen sails and the astrolabe, aided navigation.
  • Growth of States:
    • Trade networks led to the rise of states like Malacca, which taxed passing ships for revenue.
    • States institutionalized trade and invested in maritime infrastructure.
• Effects of Expanded Exchange:
  • Diasporic Communities:
    • Merchants settling in distant lands formed diasporic communities, spreading cultural and religious influence.
    • Interactions with local cultures shaped the identities of these communities.
  • Response to Increased Demand:
    • Producers increased efficiency and state involvement to meet rising demands.
    • States like Gujarat profited significantly from customs revenue and became trade intermediaries.
  • Swahili City-States:
    • East African city-states like Kilwa and Zanzibar thrived on the Indian Ocean trade.
    • Trade brought wealth, cultural exchange, and architectural development to coastal cities.
  • Significant Cultural Transfers:
    • Intensified trade facilitated exchanges in knowledge, culture, technology, and religion.
    • The voyages of Zheng He exemplify this transfer, though they stirred controversy in China.
    • Zheng He's expeditions led to prestige for China and concerns about cultural influences and expenses.

2.4 - Trans-Saharan Trade Routes

• Trans-Saharan Trade:
  • Muslim merchants facilitated trade across the Sahara, especially after the 7th and 8th centuries.
  • Empires like Mali expanded commerce, exchanging gold, ivory, hides, and enslaved people for salt, cloth, paper, and horses.
• Camels, Saddles, and Trade:
  • Camels became vital for traversing the Sahara due to their adaptability to arid conditions.
  • Various types of camel saddles were developed for different purposes, including trade.
• Caravans and Trade Routes:
  • Caravans carried goods across the Sahara, relying on oases for water and provisions.
  • Multiple trade routes connected Sub-Saharan Africa with diverse cultures and trading partners.
• Economic Significance:
  • Gold, acquired from West Africa, was a highly sought-after commodity.
  • Trans-Saharan trade brought wealth to societies like Ghana and Mali, spreading Islam in the region.
• Expansion of West African Empires:
  • Mali rose to prominence in the 12th century, profiting from the gold trade and taxing other commerce.
  • Mali's rulers, like Sundiata and Mansa Musa, established religious and trade networks, enhancing the empire's prosperity and cultural influence.
• Decline and Succession:
  • Despite Mali's eventual decline, its efforts to strengthen Islam endured.
  • The Songhai Kingdom succeeded Mali, fostering further trade and cultural exchange in West Africa.
• Empires in Western Eurasia and Africa:
  • Various empires, like Al-Andalus, the Byzantine Empire, and Russia, played significant roles in trade and cultural exchange during this period.
  • Key figures, such as Sundiata, Mansa Musa, and Ibn Rushd, contributed to their respective regions' economic and intellectual growth.

2.5 - Cultural Consequences of Connectivity

• Trade Networks (c. 1200 - c. 1450):
  • Facilitated exchange of goods, people, and ideas across Afro-Eurasia.
  • Mongol Empire stability encouraged free trade and provided protection.
• Religious, Cultural, and Technological Impact:
  • Religious Influence:
    • The spread of Buddhism, Hinduism, and Islam influenced art and culture.
  • Technological Advancements:
    • Translation of texts, agricultural innovations, and seafaring advancements.
  • Urbanization and Decline:
    • Factors like stability, commerce, and disease impacted urban growth and decline.
• Effects of the Crusades:
  • Increased knowledge of Eastern cultures, demand for goods, and disease exposure.
• Travelers' Tales:
  • Marco Polo:
    • Influential descriptions of China's prosperity and customs.
  • Ibn Battuta:
    • Insights into Islamic lands, culture, and achievements.
  • Margery Kempe:
    • Mystical experiences and pilgrimages offer a unique medieval perspective.

2.6 - Environmental Consequences of Connectivity

• Impact of Disease:
  • Bubonic plague or "Black Death" spread via trade, causing widespread death.
  • Estimated to have killed 75 to 200 million people in Eurasia, peaking in Europe from 1347 to 1351.
• Agricultural Consequences:
  • The introduction of new crops influenced land use and population growth.
  • The migration of crops like Champa rice and bananas led to increased food production and population spikes.
• Environmental Degradation:
  • Population growth strained resources, leading to overgrazing, deforestation, and soil erosion.
  • Little Ice Age (c. 1300 - c. 1800) and environmental factors contributed to agricultural decline.
• Spread of Epidemics:
  • Mongol conquests facilitated the transmission of diseases like the Black Death.
  • Caravanserai and trade routes may have aided in spreading the disease.
  • The Black Death caused significant loss of life in Europe and other regions, leading to economic changes and labor shifts.
  • Some regions, like South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, were spared due to fewer trading ports.

2.7 - Comparison of Economic Exchange

• Similarities Among Networks of Exchange:
  • Origins:
    • Interregional trade began before the Common Era, building on early trade routes.
    • The expansion of kingdoms and empires facilitated the growth of trade routes.
    • Stable states ensured protection for merchants and supported technological advancements.
  • Purpose:
    • Economic exchange was the primary purpose of trading goods for desired items.
    • Diplomats and missionaries also traveled the routes, exchanging ideas and beliefs.
  • Effects:
    • Trading networks led to the emergence of trading cities, fostering centralization.
    • Wealth from trade enabled cities to invest in security measures like navies.
    • Standardized currency facilitated transactions and commerce.
• Differences Among Networks of Exchange:
  • Goods Exchanged:
    • Different networks traded unique goods like silk, tin ingots, and cowrie shells.
  • Routes and Transportation:
    • Over time, there was a shift to metal-based coin economies and the use of "flying cash" in China.
  • Technological Inspiration:
    • China experienced proto-industrialization to meet the demand for goods like iron and porcelain.
  • Religious Spread:
    • Networks played roles in spreading various religions, each with its unique impact.
• Social Implications of Networks of Exchange:
  • Efficiency in Production:
    • Efforts to meet the rising demand for luxury goods drove proto-industrialization in China.
  • Increased Trade Volume:
    • Maritime trade routes saw increased trade volume, requiring larger ships and improved navigation.
  • Labor Demand:
    • Demand for labor rose, leading to various forms of labor, including free workers and enslaved people.
  • Large-scale Projects:
    • Large-scale projects like irrigation canals required organized labor, often coordinated through kinship ties.
• Social and Gender Structures:
  • Patriarchal Societies:
    • Societies remained patriarchal, but there were exceptions where women had more freedom and influence.
  • Women's Roles:
    • Women worked as farmers, artisans, and marketplace operators in some regions, but overall, opportunities were limited.
• Environmental Processes:
  • Population Decline:
    • Trade routes facilitated the spread of diseases like the bubonic plague, leading to significant population declines.
  • Cultural Diffusion:
    • Changes in trade networks promoted cultural diffusion and the development of educational centers.
  • Environmental Strain:
    • Political instability and increased agriculture strained the environment, leading to issues like soil erosion and overgrazing.